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Re: Nützlichkeit des Wolfs

Verfasst: 16. Mär 2019, 17:44
von Dr_R.Goatcabin
.... Für alle anderen Gelegenheitsleser: Grundsätzliches, das man zur Ökologie von stark anthropogen geprägten Landschaften geblättert haben sollte.

Dorresteijn et al. (2015): Incorporating anthropogenic effects into trophic ecology: predator–prey interactions in a human-dominated landscape. DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2015.1602.
Excerpt (Conclusion)
To date, ecological theory on trophic cascades has not explicitly included human effects, despite humanity’s pervasive impacts on the globe [7]. Our study adds to a growing recognition that humans play vital roles in influencing ecosystems through mediating and altering trophic cascades, as well as through direct landscape modification. Apex predators maintained their ecological role by suppressing lower trophic levels in a human-dominated landscape, but the combined direct and indirect anthropogenic top-down effects dominated over natural processes. Improving our understanding of human impacts on trophic cascades in human-dominated landscapes is especially important because apex predators are declining rapidly in much of the world, but, just as importantly, they are also being encouraged to recover and are being reintroduced to other areas. There are ample possibilities for restoring ecosystems through rewilding efforts or carnivore reintroduction programmes, but, especially in this context, it is important to anticipate the implications of simultaneous effects of humans and apex predators on multiple trophic levels. Given the extent and speed of global anthropogenic environmental change, elucidating how humans directly and indirectly alter bottom-up and top-down processes should receive increased consideration by future studies.

Kommentare zur Studie von Dorresteijn et al. (2015) und kritische Stimmen:

Kuijper et al.(2016): Multi-trophic interactions in anthropogenic landscapes: the devil is in the detail. DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2015.2375.
Excerpt
We applaud Dorresteijn et al. [1] for highlighting that ecological effects of large carnivores may be quite different in human-modified landscapes. Unfortunately, we feel that there are crucial flaws with their study design, analyses and interpretation. These flaws seriously undermine the strong conclusions that they draw about the role of topdown and bottom-up processes in anthropogenic landscapes. Our main concerns include (i) lack of relevant bottom-up data, (ii) a camera trap design unsuitable for testing their hypotheses regarding community structure, and (iii) top-down and bottom-up processes that are studied at an inappropriate spatial scale.

Kuijper et al. (2016): Paws without claws? Ecological effects of large carnivores in anthropogenic landscapes. DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2016.1625.
Abstract
Large carnivores are frequently presented as saviours of biodiversity and ecosystem functioning through their creation of trophic cascades, an idea largely based on studies coming primarily out of relatively natural landscapes. However, in large parts of the world, particularly in Europe, large carnivores live in and are returning to strongly human-modified ecosystems. At present, we lack a coherent framework to predict the effects of large carnivores in these anthropogenic landscapes. We review how human actions influence the ecological roles of large carnivores by affecting their density or behaviour or those of mesopredators or prey species. We argue that the potential for density-mediated trophic cascades in anthropogenic landscapes is limited to unproductive areas where even low carnivore numbers may impact prey densities or to the limited parts of the landscape where carnivores are allowed to reach ecologically functional densities. The potential for behaviourally mediated trophic cascades may be larger and more widespread, because even low carnivore densities affect prey behaviour. We conclude that predator–prey interactions in anthropogenic landscapes will be highly context-dependent and human actions will often attenuate the ecological effects of large carnivores. We highlight the knowledge gaps and outline a new research avenue to study the role of carnivores in anthropogenic landscapes.

Außerdem:

Dorresteijn et al. (2014): Human-carnivore coexistence in a traditional rural landscape. DOI: 10.1007/s10980-014-0048-5.
Abstract
Facilitating human-carnivore coexistence is a major conservation concern in human-dominated landscapes worldwide. Useful insights could be gained by studying and understanding the dynamics of human-carnivore coexistence in landscapes in which carnivores and humans have coexisted for a long time. We used a two-pronged approach combining ecological and social data to study coexistence of the brown bear (Ursus arctos) and humans in Transylvania, Romania. First, we surveyed 554 km of walking transects to estimate activity via a bear sign index, namely the proportion of anthills disturbed by bears, and used spatially explicit predictive models to test which biophysical and anthropogenic variables influenced bear activity. Second, we interviewed 86 shepherds and 359 villagers and community representatives to assess conflicts with bears and attitudes of shepherds towards bears. Our interdisciplinary study showed that bears and humans coexisted relatively peacefully despite occasional conflicts. Coexistence appeared to be facilitated by: (1) the availability of large forest blocks that are connected to the source population of bears in the Carpathian Mountains; (2) the use of traditional livestock management to minimize damage from bears; and (3) some tolerance among shepherds to occasional conflict with bears. In contrast, bear activity was unrelated to human settlements, and compensation for livestock losses did not influence people’s attitudes toward bears. Our study shows that coexistence of humans and carnivores is possible, even without direct economic incentives. A key challenge for settings with a discontinuous history of human-carnivore coexistence is to reinstate both practices and attitudes that facilitate coexistence.

Llaneza et al. (2016): Resting in risky environments: the importance of cover for wolves to cope with exposure risk in human-dominated landscapes. DOI: 10.1007/s10531-016-1134-6.
Abstract
Centuries of persecution have influenced the behaviour of large carnivores. For those populations persisting in human-dominated landscapes, complete spatial segregation from humans is not always possible, as they are in close contact with people even when they are resting. The selection of resting sites is expected to be critical for large carnivore persistence in human-dominated landscapes, where resting sites must offer protection to counteract exposure risk. Using wolves (Canis lupus) as a model species, we hypothesised that selection of resting sites by large carnivores in human-dominated landscapes will be not only influenced by human activities, but also strongly determined by cover providing concealment. We studied the fine-scale attributes of 546 wolf resting sites and confronted them to 571 random points in NW Iberia. Half of resting sites (50.8 %) were found in forests (mainly forest plantations, 73.1 %), 43.4 % in scrublands, and only 5.8 % in croplands. Compared to random points, wolves located their resting sites far away from paved and large unpaved roads and from settlements, whereas they significantly selected areas with high availability of horizontal (refuge) and canopy cover. The importance of refuge was remarkably high, with its independent contribution alone being more important than the contribution of all the variables related to human pressure (distances) pooled (51.1 vs 42.8 %, respectively). The strength of refuge selection allowed wolves even to rest relatively close to manmade structures, such as roads and settlements (sometimes less than 200 m). Maintaining high-quality refuge areas becomes an important element to favour the persistence of large carnivores in human-dominated landscapes as well as human-carnivore coexistence, which can easily be integrated in landscape planning.

Re: Studien und wissenschaftliche Paper zu Wölfen

Verfasst: 1. Mai 2019, 11:31
von Dr_R.Goatcabin
Neue Diss zum Verhalten von Beutetieren, wenn se big bad wolf wieder da ist. Viel Spaß beim Durchackern. :D Der Betreuer der Diss ist MacNulty, der auch selbst sein Magnum Opus 2002 zum Jagdverhalten vom Wolf geschrieben hat.

Kohl, Michel (2019): The Spatial Ecology of Predator-Prey Interactions: A Case Study of Yellowstone Elk, Wolves, and Cougars, 2019. Dissertation. https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/etd/7441.

Abstract
The loss of large apex predators, and their subsequent reintroduction, has been identified as a substantial driver on the structure and function of ecological communities through behavioral mediated trophic cascades (BMTCs). The reintroduction of wolves (Canis lupus) to Yellowstone National Park (YNP) has served as foundational case study of BMTCs. In our system, it has been suggested that wolves have established a ‘landscape of fear’ in which the primary prey, elk (Cervus elaphus), now avoid risky places, which ultimately led to the recovery of the vegetation community. Although this case is frequently cited as a well-understood example of a landscape of fear, researchers never quantified whether elk avoided risky places, a critical component of the BMTC hypothesis. Thus, I employed numerous quantitative approaches to evaluate the role of wolves and cougars on elk habitat selection in northern Yellowstone. The results from this work suggest that the daily activity schedule of wolves provide a temporally predictable period of risk that allows elk to use risky places during safe times. As such, diel predator activity flattened (i.e., made less risky) the landscape of fear for 16 hours per day, 7 days a week, which permitted elk to forage on deciduous woody plants despite the presence of wolves. Thus, suggests that any trophic cascade in northern Yellowstone is likely driven by the consumptive effects of wolves on elk. In addition, my results suggest that daily activity patterns are an important component of predation risk, and as such, provide a predictable avenue for elk to avoid predators despite residing in an environment spatially saturated with wolves and cougars. Thus, the ability of elk to avoid predators through fine-scale spatial decisions provides support for my findings that the current spatial distribution of prey is largely driven by the consumptive effects of predators on the prey population, rather than a landscape of fear.In combination, these results suggest that the landscape of fear, and more generally, fear effects, may be of less relevance to conservation and management than direct killing within free-living, large landscapes.

Wie ich es verstanden habe: die Verteilung von Beutetieren (wie dem Elch) in einem gegebenen Ökosystem werden signifikanter von tatsächlichem Fang & Fraß durch Raubtiere ... als durch stärkere Scheu und Ausweichverhalten ob neuen alten vierbeinigen Jägern bestimmt.

Re: Studien und wissenschaftliche Paper zu Wölfen

Verfasst: 1. Mai 2019, 20:50
von Dr_R.Goatcabin
Letzter Stapel für heute: fand bei der gestrigen Suche nach neuem Material dann doch mal was Neues respektive Effekt von Wölfen auf Rehwild bei uns - im weiteren Sinne, mit Untersuchungsgebiet in (Südost-)Frankreich. Allerdings ist diese Studie noch nicht geprüft worden und daher erst einmal als "vorläufig" zu behandeln, wie auch nur als relativ grobes Manuskript auf einem sog. Preprint-Server vorhanden.

Randon et al. (2019): Population responses of naive roe deer to the recolonization of the French Vercors by wolves. DOI: 10.1101/560128.

Abstract
In a context of rapidly changing carnivore populations worldwide, it is crucial to understand the consequences of these changes for prey populations. The recolonization by wolves of the French Vercors mountain range and the long-term monitoring (2001-2017) of roe deer populations provided us a unique opportunity to assess both lethal and non-lethal effects of wolves on these populations. We compared roe deer population abundance and growth, fawn body mass, and browsing intensity in two contrasted areas: a central area (core of a wolf pack territory characterized by an intense use by wolves) and a peripheral area (used more occasionally). Both populations of roe deer strongly dropped after an extremely severe winter but the population of the central area facing with wolves was slower to recover (due to a much lower growth rate the following year) and remained at lower abundance levels for 5 years. Fawn body mass was lower in the central area during that period and was not influenced by weather conditions or population abundance. The browsing index in the forests in presence of wolves decreased for a longer period, suggesting that possible habitat shifts have occurred. Altogether, the effects of wolves on the roe deer population in the central area occurred mainly during a 5-year period following the establishment of wolves, with effects at the population level in the first years only through the interplay between wolf predation (before wolves started preying on red deer), harsh winter conditions and naivete of prey to this recolonizing predator.
...

Von daher:

Bild

(( Gleichzeitig gilt: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1420798/ :grumpy: ))

Re: Studien und wissenschaftliche Paper zu Wölfen

Verfasst: 4. Mai 2019, 09:40
von Dr_R.Goatcabin
Noch eine kritische Gegenstimme (als honeypot für alle Wolfskritiker (die des Englischen wenigstens halbwegs mächtig sind :p )) zur Top-Down-Theorie des Wolfes als Prädator in einem Ökosystem, wo freilich nicht angezweifelt wird, dass da "was geschieht", sondern von einer Vielzahl anderer Effekte überlagert und mitgetragen wird. Mit 5min Audiokommentar von der Autorin. Auch Ripple mit seinen weit bekannten Papern über den Effekt der Wölfe in Yellowstone gibt zu, dass es kompliziert ist. .... Und deswegen bleibt Ökologie als Forschungsgebiet einfach spitze. :pleased: Wirkungsgefüge erforschen, die nicht statisch sind, sondern sich fortwährend ändern, während man sich noch am Kopf kratzt, das bereits Erfasste zu verstehen.

Marris, Emma (2014): Rethinking predators: Legend of the wolf. DOI: 10.1038/507158a.
http://www.nature.com/news/rethinking-p ... lf-1.14841
But several studies in recent years have raised questions about the top-predator rule in the high-profile cases of the wolf and the dingo. That has led some scientists to suggest that the field’s fascination with top predators stems not from their relative importance, but rather from society’s interest in the big, the dangerous and the vulnerable. “Predators can be important,” says Oswald Schmitz, an ecologist at Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut, “but they aren’t a panacea.”
Ripple is not worried about these debates, which he views as quibbling over details that do not undermine the overall strength of the tropic-cascade hypothesis. In fact, when he published a major review10 this year of the effects that predators exert over ecosystems, he left out studies critical of the wolf and dingo trophic-cascade theories; he says that there was no room for them in the space he had to work with. Ripple is particularly concerned with documenting the impacts of Earth’s top carnivores because so many are endangered. “We are losing these carnivores at the same time that we are learning about their ecological effects,” he says. “It is alarming, and this information needs to be brought forth.”
Although Ripple stresses the role of the top carnivores, he agrees they are not the end of the story. “I believe in the combination of top-down and bottom-up, working in unison,” he says. “They are both playing out on any given piece of ground and the challenge will be to discover what determines their interactions and relative effects.”
...

Zusammenfassung: wolves ain't no pancakes! :p Oder so.

Re: Trophische Kaskadeneffekte & Räuber-Beute-Dynamik: eine Sammlung

Verfasst: 15. Mai 2019, 22:50
von Dr_R.Goatcabin
Beschta & Ripple (2009): Large predators and trophic cascades in terrestrial ecosystems of the western United States. DOI: 10.1016/j.biocon.2009.06.015.
Abstract
Large predators potentially can help shape the structure and functioning of terrestrial ecosystems, yet strong evidence of top-down herbivore limitation has not been widely reported in the scientific literature. Herein we synthesize outcomes of recent tri-trophic cascades studies involving the presence and absence of large predators for five national parks in the western United States, including Olympic, Yosemite, Yellowstone, Zion, and Wind Cave. Historical observations by park biologists regarding woody browse species and recently compiled age structure data for deciduous trees indicate major impacts to woody plant communities by ungulates following the extirpation or displacement of large predators. Declines in long-term tree recruitment indexed additional effects to plant communities and ecological processes, as well as shifts towards alternative ecosystem states. The magnitude and consistency of vegetation impacts found within these five parks, in conjunction with other recent North American studies, indicate that broad changes to ecosystem processes and the lower trophic level may have occurred in other parts of the western United States where large predators have been extirpated or displaced. Thus, where ungulates have significantly altered native plant communities in the absence of large predators, restoration of native flora is urgently needed to recover former ecosystem services. Following the reintroduction of previously extirpated gray wolves Canis lupus into Yellowstone National Park, a spatially patchy recovery of woody browse species (e.g., aspen Populus tremuloides, willow Salix spp., cottonwood Populus spp.) has begun, indicating that large predator recovery may represent an important restoration strategy for ecosystems degraded by wild ungulates.

Eisenberg et al. (2014a): Effects of predation risk on elk (Cervus elaphus) landscape use in a wolf (Canis lupus) dominated system. DOI: 10.1139/cjz-2014-0138.
Abstract
Food acquisition and predation avoidance are key drivers of herbivore behaviour. We investigated the interaction of top-down (predator) and bottom-up (food, fire, thermal) effects by measuring the relationship between wolf (Canis lupus L., 1758) predation risk perceived by elk (Cervus elaphus L., 1758) and elk landscape use. We conducted fecal pellet and wolf scat surveys in three valleys with three wolf population levels (Saint Mary: low; Waterton: moderate; North Fork: high). In the North Fork, 90% of quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx.) stands burned recently; the other valleys had no fire. We created predictive models of elk pellet density that incorporated bottom-up and top-down variables. All valleys had a high elk pellet density (≥10 per 100 m2). Wolf scat density was similar where there was no fire, but one order of magnitude greater in burned areas. Elk pellet density was lower in the North Fork, a predation-related response. In all valleys, site-specific elk density declined as impediments to detecting or escaping wolves increased, and elk avoided aspen, except for North Fork unburned areas. Models that best predicted elk density contained bottom-up and top-down effects. At local scales, high predation risk negatively influence elk occurrence, suggesting that even with minimal wolf exposure elk avoid risky sites.

Eisenberg et al. (2014b): Context dependence of elk (Cervus elaphus) vigilance and wolf (Canis lupus) predation risk. DOI: 10.1139/cjz-2014-0049.
Abstract
To assess the relationship between predation risk perceived by elk (Cervus elaphus L., 1758) as evidenced by vigilance, we conducted focal animal observations in elk winter range. We stratified our observations in Glacier National Park, Montana, USA, and Waterton Lakes National Park, Alberta, Canada, in valleys with three wolf (Canis lupus L., 1758) population levels (Saint Mary Valley: no wolf; Waterton Valley: moderate wolf; North Fork Valley: high wolf). Although the lowest elk vigilance occurred in Saint Mary and the highest in the North Fork, our analysis revealed a complex picture. Our model included distance to forest edge, group size, distance to road, social class, and impediments to detecting and escaping wolves. In Saint Mary, none of the variables were significant. In Waterton, vigilance decreased as elk group size increased (p < 0.00001) and increased as impediments increased (p = 0.0005). In the North Fork, vigilance increased as group size increased (p = 0.03), bulls were more vigilant (p = 0.02), and the interaction between group size and impediments was significant (p = 0.03). Where a high wolf population existed, elk did not exhibit uniform or expected response to predation risk factors. High wolf presence may necessitate adaptive elk behaviour that differs from response to moderate wolf presence.

Eisenberg et al. (2013): Wolf, elk, and aspen food web relationships: Context and complexity. DOI: 10.1016/j.foreco.2013.01.014.
Abstract
Like most ecological communities, aspen (Populus tremuloides) forests are influenced by a synergy of bottom-up (resources-driven) and top-down (predator-driven) processes. Since the 1920s, ecologists have observed the decline of many aspen communities throughout the Intermountain West. The extent and possible drivers of this decline are topics of much recent scientific study. In addition to bottom-up effects, which include drought, fire suppression, and disease, ungulate herbivory is a contributing factor. Trophic cascades are ecological relationships in which an apex predator produces strong top-down, direct effects on its prey and indirect changes in faunal and floral communities at lower trophic levels. Apex predators, such as the gray wolf (Canis lupus), have been linked to aspen vigor and recruitment, via trophic cascades mechanisms. Scientists have hypothesized that returning wolves to the landscape enables aspen to recruit into the forest overstory, via the density-mediated and behaviorally-mediated effects of wolves on their ungulate prey, primarily elk (Cervus elaphus). We present a synthesis of scientific findings on this topic, identify trends in the ecological impacts of wolves in aspen communities in a variety of ecosystems, and suggest areas for further investigation. Knowledge gaps include the interaction of top-down (e.g., predators) and bottom-up (e.g., drought, fire, hydrology, logging) effects, and how the ecological context of the interaction affects the outcome. Future horizons involve exploring these food web relationships as a complex of inter-level interactions in a more integrated, empirical manner. We suggest adopting a new standard for the aspen/wolf ecology literature by shifting its emphasis and lexicon from trophic cascades to food web studies. Such an integrated approach can help managers create more resilient aspen communities.

Gervasi et al. (2013): Decomposing risk: Landscape structure and wolf behavior generate different predation patterns in two sympatric ungulates. DOI: 10.1890/12-1615.1.
Abstract
Recolonizing carnivores can have a large impact on the status of wild ungulates, which have often modified their behavior in the absence of predation. Therefore, understanding the dynamics of reestablished predator–prey systems is crucial to predict their potential ecosystem effects. We decomposed the spatial structure of predation by recolonizing wolves (Canis lupus) on two sympatric ungulates, moose (Alces alces) and roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), in Scandinavia during a 10‐year study. We monitored 18 wolves with GPS collars, distributed over 12 territories, and collected records from predation events. By using conditional logistic regression, we assessed the contributions of three main factors, the utilization patterns of each wolf territory, the spatial distribution of both prey species, and fine‐scale landscape structure, in determining the spatial structure of moose and roe deer predation risk. The eestablished predator–prey system showed a remarkable spatial variation in kill occurrence at the intra‐territorial level, with kill probabilities varying by several orders of magnitude inside the same territory. Variation in predation risk was evident also when a spatially homogeneous probability for a wolf to encounter a prey was simulated. Even inside the same territory, with the same landscape structure, and when exposed to predation by the same wolves, the two prey species experienced an opposite spatial distribution of predation risk. In particular, increased predation risk for moose was associated with open areas, especially clearcuts and young forest stands, whereas risk was lowered for roe deer in the same habitat types. Thus, fine‐scale landscape structure can generate contrasting predation risk patterns in sympatric ungulates, so that they can experience large differences in the spatial distribution of risk and refuge areas when exposed to predation by a recolonizing predator. Territories with an earlier recolonization were not associated with a lower hunting success for wolves. Such constant efficiency in wolf predation during the colonization process is in line with previous findings about the naïve nature of Scandinavian moose to wolf predation. This, together with the human‐dominated nature of the Scandinavian ecosystem, seems to limit the possibility for wolves to have large ecosystem effects and to establish a behaviorally mediated trophic cascade in Scandinavia.

Miller et al. (2012): Trophic cascades linking wolves ( Canis lupus ), coyotes ( Canis latrans ), and small mammals. DOI: 10.1139/z11-115.
Abstract
When large carnivores are extirpated from ecosystems that evolved with apex predators, these systems can change at the herbivore and plant trophic levels. Such changes across trophic levels are called cascading effects and they are very important to conservation. Studies on the effects of reintroduced wolves in Yellowstone National Park have examined the interaction pathway of wolves (Canis lupus L., 1758) to ungulates to plants. This study examines the interaction effects of wolves to coyotes to rodents (reversing mesopredator release in the absence of wolves). Coyotes (Canis latrans Say, 1823) generally avoided areas near a wolf den. However, when in the proximity of a den, they used woody habitats (pine or sage) compared with herbaceous habitats (grass or forb or sedge)– when they were away from the wolf den. Our data suggested a significant increase in rodent numbers, particularly voles (genus Microtus Schrank, 1798), during the 3-year study on plots that were within 3 km of the wolf den, but we did not detect a significant change in rodent numbers over time for more distant plots. Predation by coyotes may have depressed numbers of small mammals in areas away from the wolf den. These factors indicate a top–down effect by wolves on coyotes and subsequently on the rodents of the area. Restoration of wolves could be a powerful tool for regulating predation at lower trophic levels.

Painter et al. (2015): Recovering aspen follow changing elk dynamics in Yellowstone: evidence of a trophic cascade? DOI: 10.1890/14-0712.1.
Abstract
To investigate the extent and causes of recent quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides) recruitment in northern Yellowstone National Park, we measured browsing intensity and height of young aspen in 87 randomly selected aspen stands in 2012, and compared our results to similar data collected in 1997–1998. We also examined the relationship between aspen recovery and the distribution of Rocky Mountain elk (Cervus elaphus) and bison (Bison bison) on the Yellowstone northern ungulate winter range, using ungulate fecal pile densities and annual elk count data. In 1998, 90% of young aspen were browsed and none were taller than 200 cm, the height at which aspen begin to escape from elk browsing. In 2012, only 37% in the east and 63% in the west portions of the winter range were browsed, and 65% of stands in the east had young aspen taller than 200 cm. Heights of young aspen were inversely related to browsing intensity, with the least browsing and greatest heights in the eastern portion of the range, corresponding with recent changes in elk density and distribution. In contrast with historical elk distribution (1930s–1990s), the greatest densities of elk recently (2006–2012) have been north of the park boundary (~5 elk/km2), and in the western part of the range (2–4 elk/km2), with relatively few elk in the eastern portion of the range (<2 elk/km2), even in mild winters. This redistribution of elk and decrease in density inside the park, and overall reduction in elk numbers, explain why many aspen stands have begun to recover. Increased predation pressure following the reintroduction of gray wolves (Canis lupus) in 1995–1996 played a role in these changing elk population dynamics, interacting with other influences including increased predation by bears (Ursus spp.), competition with an expanding bison population, and shifting patterns of human land use and hunting outside the park. The resulting new aspen recruitment is evidence of a landscape‐scale trophic cascade in which a resurgent large carnivore community, combined with other ecological changes, has benefited aspen through effects on ungulate prey.

Ripple et al. (2001): Trophic cascades among wolves, elk and aspen on Yellowstone National Park’s northern range. DOI: 10.1016/S0006-3207(01)00107-0.
Abstract
Quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides) biomass has declined in Yellowstone National Park (YNP) in the past century. We installed permanent belt transects (plots) for long-term monitoring of aspen stands both within and outside of established wolf pack territories on YNP’s northern range to determine if reintroduced wolves are influencing elk browsing patterns and aspen regeneration through a trophic cascades interaction. Wolves may have an indirect effect on aspen regeneration by altering elk movements, browsing patterns, and foraging behavior (predation risk effects). Elk pellet groups, aspen sucker heights, and the percentage of browsed suckers were the variables used to measure differences in aspen stands in high and low wolf-use areas of the northern range. The aspen stands in the high wolf-use areas had significantly lower counts of elk pellet groups in the mesic upland steppe and the combined mesic upland steppe and riparian/wet meadow habitat types. Based on our pellet group results, it appears that elk foraging behaviors may have been altered by the increased risk of predation due to the reintroduction of the wolf. In the riparian/wet meadow habitat type, mean aspen sucker heights were significantly higher in the high wolf-use areas than in the low wolf-use areas. The percentage of browsed suckers in high and low wolf-use areas showed no significant differences in any of the habitat types. Considering the high browsing pressure in YNP aspen stands, it is uncertain whether the taller aspen suckers measured in the high wolf-use areas will eventually join the aspen overstory. These permanent plots represent a valuable baseline data set to assess any current and future aspen regeneration responses to the reintroduction of wolves in YNP.

Ripple & Beschta (2004): Wolves, elk, willows, and trophic cascades in the upper Gallatin Range of Southwestern Montana, USA. DOI: 10.1016/j.foreco.2004.06.017.
Abstract
We summarized the status of wolves (Canis lupus), elk (Cervis elaphus), and woody browse conditions during the 20th century for the upper Gallatin elk winter range in southwestern Montana, USA. During this period, wolves were present until about the mid-1920s, absent for seven decades, and then returned to the basin in 1996. A chronosequence of photographs, historical reports, and studies indicated willows (Salix spp.) along streams became heavily browsed and eventually suppressed following the removal of wolves, apparently due to unimpeded browsing by elk. However, after wolf establishment in 1996, browsing intensity on willows lessened in some areas and we hypothesized that, at both a landscape and fine scale, browsing pressure reflects terrain configurations influencing predation risk (nonlethal effects), in conjunction with lower elk densities (lethal effects). We measured browsing intensity and heights of Booth willow (S. boothii) along 3000 m reaches of the Gallatin River and a tributary to examine the potential influence of wolf/elk interactions upon willow growth. Where the Gallatin Valley is relatively narrow (high predation risk), willows began releasing in 1999 and by 2002 were relatively tall (150–250 cm). In contrast, willow heights along a wider portion of the Gallatin Valley, along the open landscape of the tributary, and an upland site (all low predation risk) generally remained low (<80 cm). We identified terrain and other features that may contribute to the perceived risk of wolf predation, by elk for a given site. Although alternative mechanisms are discussed, changes in willow communities over time following wolf removal and their subsequent reintroduction were consistent with a top-down trophic cascade model involving nonlethal and possibly lethal effects. If similar top-down effects upon vegetation hold true in other regions of North America and other parts of the world where wolves have been extirpated, wolf recovery may represent a management option for helping to restore riparian plant communities and conserve biodiversity.

Ripple & Beschta (2007): Restoring Yellowstone’s aspen with wolves. DOI: 10.1016/j.biocon.2007.05.006.
Abstract
Wolves (Canis lupus) were reintroduced to Yellowstone National Park in 1995–1996. We present data on a recent trophic cascade involving wolves, elk (Cervus elaphus), and aspen (Populus tremuloides) in Yellowstone’s northern winter range that documents the first significant growth of aspen in over half a century. Results indicate reduced browsing and increased heights of young aspen during the last 4–5 years, particularly at high predation risk sites (riparian areas with downed logs). In contrast, young aspen in upland settings generally showed continued suppression with only a slight decrease in browsing levels and only a slight increase in height. Our findings are consistent with the combined effects of a behaviorally-mediated and density-mediated trophic cascade. Results provide an improved perspective for understanding trophic dynamics and spatially variable plant community growth patterns in this recovering ecosystem.

Ripple et al. (2011): Can restoring wolves aid in lynx recovery? DOI: 10.1002/wsb.59.
Abstract
Herein, we examine the hypothesis that relatively low densities of snowshoe hares (Lepus americanus) and the imperiled status of lynx (Lynx canadensis) may be partially due to an ecological cascade caused by the extirpation of gray wolves (Canis lupus) in most of the conterminous United States decades ago. This hypothesis focuses on 2 plausible mechanisms, one involving “mesopredator release” of the coyote (C. latrans), which expanded its distribution and abundance continentally following the ecological extinction of wolves over the temperate portion of their geographic range. In the absence of wolves, coyotes may have affected lynx via increased predation on snowshoe hares, on which the lynx specializes, and/or by direct killing of lynx. The second mechanism involves increased browsing pressure by native and domestic ungulates following the declines in wolves. A recovery of long‐absent wolf populations could potentially set off a chain of events triggering a long‐term decrease in coyotes and ungulates, improved plant communities, and eventually an increase in hares and lynx. This prediction, and others that we make, are testable. Ecological implications for
the lynx may be dependent upon whether wolves are allowed to achieve ecologically effective populations where they recolonize or are reintroduced in lynx habitat. We emphasize the importance of little‐considered trophic and competitive interactions when attempting to recover an endangered carnivore such as the lynx.

Ripple & Beschta (2012a): Trophic cascades in Yellowstone: The first 15 years after wolf reintroduction. DOI: 10.1016/j.biocon.2011.11.005.
Abstract
The 1995/1996 reintroduction of gray wolves (Canis lupus) into Yellowstone National Park after a 70 year absence has allowed for studies of tri-trophic cascades involving wolves, elk (Cervus elaphus), and plant species such as aspen (Populus tremuloides), cottonwoods (Populus spp.), and willows (Salix spp.). To investigate the status of this cascade, in September of 2010 we repeated an earlier survey of aspen and measured browsing and heights of young aspen in 97 stands along four streams in the Lamar River catchment of the park’s northern winter range. We found that browsing on the five tallest young aspen in each stand decreased from 100% of all measured leaders in 1998 to means of <25% in the uplands and <20% in riparian areas by 2010. Correspondingly, aspen recruitment (i.e., growth of seedlings/sprouts above the browse level of ungulates) increased as browsing decreased over time in these same stands. We repeated earlier inventories of cottonwoods and found that recruitment had also increased in recent years. We also synthesized studies on trophic cascades published during the first 15 years after wolf reintroduction. Synthesis results generally indicate that the reintroduction of wolves restored a trophic cascade with woody browse species growing taller and canopy cover increasing in some, but not all places. After wolf reintroduction, elk populations decreased, but both beaver (Caster canadensis) and bison (Bison bison) numbers increased, possibly due to the increase in available woody plants and herbaceous forage resulting from less competition with elk. Trophic cascades research during the first 15 years after wolf reintroduction indicated substantial initial effects on both plants and animals, but northern Yellowstone still appears to be in the early stages of ecosystem recovery. In ecosystems where wolves have been displaced or locally extirpated, their reintroduction may represent a particularly effective approach for passive restoration.

Ripple & Beschta (2012b): Large predators limit herbivore densities in northern forest ecosystems. DOI: 10.1007/s10344-012-0623-5.
Abstract
There is a lack of scientific consensus about how top-down and bottom-up forces interact to structure terrestrial ecosystems. This is especially true for systems with large carnivore and herbivore species where the effects of predation versus food limitation on herbivores are controversial. Uncertainty exists whether top-down forces driven by large carnivores are common, and if so, how their influences vary with predator guild composition and primary productivity. Based on data and information in 42 published studies from over a 50-year time span, we analyzed the composition of large predator guilds and prey densities across a productivity gradient in boreal and temperate forests of North America and Eurasia. We found that predation by large mammalian carnivores, especially sympatric gray wolves (Canis lupus) and bears (Ursus spp.), apparently limits densities of large mammalian herbivores. We found that cervid densities, measured in deer equivalents, averaged nearly six times greater in areas without wolves compared to areas with wolves. In areas with wolves, herbivore density increased only slightly with increasing productivity. These predator effects
are consistent with the exploitation ecosystems hypothesis and appear to occur across a broad range of net primary productivities. Results are also consistent with theory on trophic cascades, suggesting widespread and top-down forcing by large carnivores on large herbivores in forest biomes across the northern hemisphere. These findings have important conservation implications involving not only the management of large carnivores but also that of large herbivores and plant communities.

Ripple et al. (2013): Widespread mesopredator effects after wolf extirpation. DOI: 10.1016/j.biocon.2012.12.033.
Abstract
Herein, we posit a link between the ecological extinction of wolves in the American West and the expansion in distribution, increased abundance, and inflated ecological influence of coyotes. We investigate the hypothesis that the release of this mesopredator from wolf suppression across much of the American West is affecting, via predation and competition, a wide range of faunal elements including mammals, birds, and reptiles. We document various cases of coyote predation on or killing of threatened and endangered species or species of conservation concern with the potential to alter community structure. The apparent long-term decline of leporids in the American West, for instance, might be linked to increased coyote predation. The coyote effects we discuss could be context dependent and may also be influenced by varying bottom-up factors in systems without wolves. We make recommendations for ecological research in light of ongoing wolf recovery in parts of the West. Strong ecological effects of wolf repatriation may not occur outside of large reserves where wolves are prevented from achieving ecologically effective densities because of wolf hunting or wolf
control programs. Finally, we advocate for more studies relating to the management of coyotes that compare exploited and unexploited populations and evaluate the influence of anthropogenic food subsidies on coyote densities.

Ripple et al. (2014): Status and Ecological Effects of the World’s Largest Carnivores. DOI: 10.1126/science.1241484.
Abstract
Large carnivores face serious threats and are experiencing massive declines in their populations and geographic ranges around the world. We highlight how these threats have affected the conservation status and ecological functioning of the 31 largest mammalian carnivores on Earth. Consistent with theory, empirical studies increasingly show that large carnivores have substantial effects on the structure and function of diverse ecosystems. Significant cascading trophic interactions, mediated by their prey or sympatric mesopredators, arise when some of these carnivores are extirpated from or repatriated to ecosystems. Unexpected effects of trophic cascades on various taxa and processes include changes to bird, mammal, invertebrate, and herpetofauna abundance or richness; subsidies to scavengers; altered disease dynamics; carbon sequestration; modified stream morphology; and crop damage. Promoting tolerance and coexistence with large carnivores is a crucial societal challenge that will ultimately determine the fate of Earth’s largest carnivores and all that depends upon them, including humans.

Seager et al. (2013): Patterns and consequences of ungulate herbivory on aspen in western North America. DOI: 10.1016/j.foreco.2013.02.017.
Abstract
Quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides) forests develop complex, multi-story structure and speciose plant communities, which provide habitat for ungulates and diverse wildlife species. Successfully recruiting aspen sprouts and seedlings provide important sources of structural, functional and genetic diversity vital to resilient aspen forests. Chronic ungulate browsing of regenerating aspen can degrade aspen community structure and diversity. This simplifies food webs and can have negative implications for ecosystem resilience. This paper explores how patterns of ungulate herbivory in aspen forests are influenced by and affect bottom–up and top–down forces in aspen ecosystems. We outline management strategies aimed at decreasing ungulate and livestock impacts on aspen and increasing sprout survival and recruitment. The body of aspen research indicates that herbivory is more heterogeneous in areas that contain human hunters, predators, or fire on the landscape. The complexities of ungulate herbivory and fire on aspen ecosystems, especially in relation to scale, are imperfectly understood. Wildlife agencies responsible for elk (Cervus elaphus) and deer
(Odocoileus spp.) populations should consider management strategies that use ungulate herbivory impacts on ecosystems such as aspen as indicators of sustainable herd densities. To increase aspen resilience in the face of current and future environmental change, we recommend a multi-faceted approach that involves enhancing bottom–up forces while decreasing top–down impacts from ungulates.

Winnie (2012): Predation risk, elk, and aspen: tests of a behaviorally mediated trophic cascade in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. DOI: 10.1890/11-1990.1.
Abstract
Aspen in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem are hypothesized to be recovering from decades of heavy browsing by elk due to a behaviorally mediated trophic cascade (BMTC). Several authors have suggested that wolves interact with certain terrain features, creating places of high predation risk at fine spatial scales, and that elk avoid these places, which creates refugia for plants. This hypothesized BMTC could release aspen from elk browsing pressure, leading to a patchy recovery in places of high risk. I tested whether four specific, hypothesized fine‐scale risk factors are correlated with changes in current elk browsing pressure on aspen, or with aspen recruitment since wolf reintroduction, in the Daly Creek drainage in Yellowstone National Park, and near two aspen enclosures outside of the park boundary. Aspen were not responding to hypothesized fine‐scale risk factors in ways consistent with the current BMTC hypothesis.

Winnie & Creel (2017): The many effects of carnivores on their prey and their implications for trophic cascades, and ecosystem structure and function. DOI: 10.1016/j.fooweb.2016.09.002.
Abstract
Despite some controversy, a wide range of research across multiple taxa have established that carnivores strongly influence prey population dynamics both through direct offtake and indirect risk effects. Because of these powerful top-down effects carnivores can influence ecosystems across multiple trophic levels. Here we discuss research addressing carnivore direct- and indirect effects on prey, and how these effects can influence overall ecosystem structure and function.

Re: Trophische Kaskadeneffekte & Räuber-Beute-Dynamik: eine Sammlung

Verfasst: 23. Dez 2019, 11:13
von Dr_R.Goatcabin
Für den nächsten Ahnungslosen im Grünfilz, der wieder von großen Angstrudeln ob des Wolfes faselt - hier ein aktueller Hit unter "meinen" Wissenschaftlern auf Researchgate. Wäre allerdings mal einen Vortragsabend wert, das Ganze hier auseinanderzuklamüsern. Das Paper selbst umfasst samt Anhang 67 Seiten (!!) und ist damit ein echter Brocken (wobei die Hälfte bereits der Appendix ausmacht).

Bubnicki et al. (2019): Linking spatial patterns of terrestrial herbivore community structure to trophic interactions. DOI: 10.7554/eLife.44937. Volltext Google Translate.

Abstract
Große Pflanzenfresser beeinflussen die Funktion des Ökosystems durch ihre Auswirkungen auf die Vegetation in verschiedenen räumlichen Maßstäben. Es wird oft übersehen, dass die räumliche Verteilung großer Pflanzenfresser aus ihren Reaktionen auf wechselwirkende ökologische Gradienten von oben nach unten und von unten nach oben resultiert, die zu landschaftlichen Variationen in der Struktur der gesamten Gemeinschaft führen. Wir untersuchten die Komplexität dieser kaskadierenden Wechselwirkungen mit hochauflösenden Kamera- und Fernerkundungsdaten im besterhaltenen europäischen Tieflandwald, Białowieża Forest, Polen. Wir haben gezeigt, dass die Variation der räumlichen Verteilung einer ganzen Gemeinschaft großer Pflanzenfresser durch artspezifische Reaktionen auf Bottom-up- und biotische Top-down-Faktoren in Kombination mit vom Menschen verursachten (kaskadierenden) Effekten erklärt wird. Wir zerlegten die räumlichen Unterschiede in der Struktur der Pflanzenfressergemeinschaft und identifizierten funktionell unterschiedliche Pflanzenfresserschichten („Herbiscapes“), die in verschiedenen Ökosystemen vorkommen und ein wichtiger Mechanismus sein könnten, der räumliche Unterschiede bei der Erhaltung der Vegetationsheterogenität von Pflanzenfressern hervorruft.
Conclusion
Zusammenfassend hat unsere Studie gezeigt, dass räumliche Unterschiede in der Struktur einer ganzen großen Pflanzenfressergemeinschaft auf interaktive Effekte artspezifischer Reaktionen auf große ökologische Gradienten im Landschaftsmaßstab zurückzuführen sind. Der Mensch war ein entscheidender Faktor im Zusammenhang mit der Landschaftsnutzung von Wölfen und Luchsen. Während Luchse nicht mit den Raumnutzungsmustern von Huftieren assoziiert waren, waren Wölfe stark (negativ) mit der räumlichen Verteilung ihrer Hauptbeutetiere (Rotwild) assoziiert, was die Koexistenzmuster von Huftieren auf der Landschaftsskala beeinflusste. Die Nutzung des Raums durch europäische Bisons, Elche, Rehe und Wildschweine hing mit den Nahrungsressourcen zusammen. Diese Prozesse führten zur Verteilung verschiedener funktioneller Pflanzenfresser über die Landschaft und erzeugten eine klare räumliche Struktur in der Pflanzenfressergemeinschaft, die wir als Herbiscapes bezeichneten. Vegetationsanalysen deuteten darauf hin, dass sich die Auswirkungen von Pflanzenfressern, gemessen anhand der Verbissintensität und der Regeneration von verbisstoleranten Baumarten, zwischen den Herbiscapes durchweg unterschieden. Wenn diese Herbiscapes stabil genug sind, könnten sie einen wichtigen Mechanismus für die Variation der Auswirkungen von Pflanzenfressern auf die Holzvegetation darstellen und somit die Heterogenität in einem breiten Spektrum von Ökosystemen aufrechterhalten.

Re: Trophische Kaskadeneffekte & Räuber-Beute-Dynamik: eine Sammlung

Verfasst: 31. Dez 2019, 09:51
von Dr_R.Goatcabin
Beschta & Ripple (2019): Large carnivore extirpation linked to loss of overstory aspen in Yellowstone. DOI: 10.1016/j.fooweb.2019.e00140.

Abstract
Das Abstreifen (oder "Barking") der Rinde am unteren Teil der Espenbäume (Populus tremuloides) durch den Wapiti (Cervus canadensis) erhöht die Eintrittspunkte für Krankheitserreger wie holzzerstörende Pilze und damit die Sterblichkeit von Espenbäumen durch Kernfäule. Wir stellten die Hypothese auf, dass dies in Yellowstones Espenbeständen im Norden als Teil einer trophischen Kaskade vorgekommen ist und zum vorzeitigen und weitverbreiteten Verlust von Bäumen mit Kronendach (overstory (tree)) beigetragen hat. Um diese potenziellen Auswirkungen abzuschätzen, haben wir Espenstände entlang einer 60-km-Traverse über die nördliche Reichweite des Parks zufällig ausgewählt. Für übergeschnittene Bäume mit einem Durchmesser von ≥ 15 cm in Brusthöhe (DBH, diameter at breast height) innerhalb dieser Bestände, die für Elche zugänglich waren, haben wir die Höhe des Barkings (wie durch tief gefurchte / geschwärzte Rinde angegeben) und den Anteil der inkrementellen Kernlängen mit Kernfäule gemessen . Die Baumproben hatten eine durchschnittliche Höhe von 2,2 m und 93,8% von ihnen wiesen Kernfäule auf. Im Gegensatz dazu hatten nur 13,3% der Espenbäume, die in einer elchgeschützten Umgebung gewachsen waren, Kernfäule. Kernfäule umfasste 45,2% und 2,5% der inkrementellen Kernlängen für die elchzugänglichen bzw. geschützten Stände. Die Ergebnisse stützen eine mehrstufige trophische Kaskade von Raubtieren über Beute bis zu Pflanzen und Pilzen, wobei eine unvollständige große Fleischfressergilde über einen Zeitraum von sieben Jahrzehnten das weitverbreitete Barking von Espen durch Elche ermöglichte. Dies wiederum könnte die Prävalenz von Kernfäule erhöht und zu einem beschleunigten Verlust von Espen mit Kronendach im nördlichen Bereich beigetragen haben.

Re: Trophische Kaskadeneffekte & Räuber-Beute-Dynamik: eine Sammlung

Verfasst: 9. Apr 2020, 18:42
von Dr_R.Goatcabin
Kamerafalle offenbart: Hasen sind [in der Not] Fleischfresser und Kannibalen
Die Schneeschuhhasen im kanadischen Yukon verzehren Fleisch, um in den langen Wintermonaten an einem der kältesten Orte der Welt ihre karge Kost zu ergänzen.

Während des Sommers knabbern sich die kleinen Säuger durch die Vegetation. Wenn die Landschaft jedoch unter einer dicken Schneedecke liegt und die Temperaturen auf unter -30°C fallen, machen sich die hungrigen Hasen auch über Kadaver ihrer Artgenossen oder diverser Vogelarten her.

In einer ironischen Umkehr der Nahrungskette fressen die Hasen sogar die Kadaver toter Kanadischer Luchse – ihr größter Fressfeind, sagt Michael Peers, ein Ökologiedoktorand an der kanadischen University of Alberta in Edmonton. Er leitete eine aktuelle Studie über das Phänomen, die in „Bio One Complete“ erschien.
https://www.nationalgeographic.de/tiere ... kannibalen


Bild

Re: Trophische Kaskadeneffekte & Räuber-Beute-Dynamik: eine Sammlung

Verfasst: 17. Nov 2020, 11:18
von Dr_R.Goatcabin
Proudman et al. (2020): Red deer allocate vigilance differently in response to spatio-temporal patterns of risk from human hunters and wolves. DOI: 10.1071/WR20059. Google Translate Volltext

Abstract
Kontext: Huftierbeute kann mit erhöhter Wachsamkeit das Risiko von Raubtieren verringern. Über die kombinierten und interaktiven Risikoeffekte von Menschen und Wölfen bei der Bestimmung des Verhaltens von Huftieren über Zeit und Raum ist jedoch wenig bekannt. Das Verständnis des Zusammenspiels dieser Risikoeffekte wird angesichts der Rekolonialisierung mehrerer großer Carnivorenzu stärker vom Menschen dominierten Landschaften in Europa immer wichtiger.

Ziel: Ziel der vorliegenden Studie war es, das Wachsamkeitsverhalten von Rotwild (Cervus elaphus) als Reaktion auf Menschen und Wölfe im polnischen Białowieża-Wald zu bewerten.

Methoden: Verwendung eines Kamerafallen-Transekts, Auswirkung der Entfernung zu menschlichen Siedlungen, Jagdsaison, Raumnutzungsmuster von Wölfen (Canis lupus), Offenheit des Kronendachess, Höhe des Kronendaches, Tageszeit sowie Geschlecht / Alter der Individuen. Das bei Rotwild beobachtete Wachsamkeitsverhalten wurde anhand eines Modellauswahlansatzes untersucht.

Hauptergebnisse: Wir fanden keine eindeutige Auswirkung von Mustern der Raumnutzung durch Wölfe oder der Entfernung zu menschlichen Siedlungen auf das Wachsamkeitsverhalten von Rotwild im Landschaftsmaßstab. Rotwild zeigten jedoch während der Jagdsaison und tagsüber außerhalb von Schutzgebieten und Reservaten eine erhöhte Wachsamkeit, da die Störung durch menschliche Jäger am höchsten ist. Umgekehrt stellten wir auch fest, dass Rotwild nachts in geschützten Gebieten wachsamer waren, was wahrscheinlich durch die erhöhte Aktivität von Wölfen erklärt wird, da die menschliche Aktivität streng begrenzt ist.

Schlussfolgerungen: Unsere Studie zeigte, dass das Wachsamkeitsverhalten von Rotwild im Urwald von Białowieża mehr von der menschlichen Jagd als von der Häufigkeit der Wolfspräsenz im Landschaftsmaßstab abhängt. Dies könnte durch die höhere zeitliche und räumliche Vorhersagbarkeit menschlicher Jagdaktivitäten als das Wolfsrisiko erklärt werden. Wir fanden heraus, dass Muster der Wolfsraumnutzung im Gegensatz zu den allgegenwärtigen Angsteffekten des Menschen nur lokalisierte Effekte hatten, indem sie die Wachsamkeit während der Nachtstunden in nichtjagenden Gebieten des Waldes erhöhten. Das Gegenteil wurde außerhalb der geschützten Reserven beobachtet. In einer Landschaft, in der das menschliche Risiko immer größer wird und Fleischfresser sich neu besiedeln, wird es immer wichtiger zu verstehen, wie Beutetiere auf diese neue Kombination von Risiken durch natürliche Raubtiere und Menschen reagieren.

Re: Trophische Kaskadeneffekte & Räuber-Beute-Dynamik: eine Sammlung

Verfasst: 8. Dez 2020, 11:56
von Dr_R.Goatcabin
Gable et al. (2020): Outsized effect of predation: Wolves alter wetland creation and recolonization by killing ecosystem engineers. DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abc5439. Google Translate Volltext

Abstract
Grauwölfe sind ein hervorragendes Beispiel dafür, wie Raubtiere Ökosysteme durch trophische Kaskaden verändern können. Es wurde jedoch zunehmend in Frage gestellt, ob Wölfe die Ökosysteme so drastisch verändern, wie zuvor vorgeschlagen. Wir zeigen, wie Wölfe die Entstehung und Wiederbesiedlung von Feuchtgebieten verändern, indem sie zerstreuende [dispersing] Biber töten. Biber sind Ökosystemingenieure, die die meisten Feuchtgebiete in borealen Ökosystemen schaffen. Durch Untersuchung der Entstehungs- und Rekolonisationsmuster von Biberteichen in Verbindung mit der Wolfsjagd auf Biber stellten wir fest, dass 84% ​​der neu geschaffenen und rekolonisierten Biberteiche bis zum Herbst besetzt blieben, während 0% der neu geschaffenen und rekolonisierten Teiche aktiv blieben, nachdem ein Wolf die Zerstreuung getötet hatte Biber, der diesen Teich besiedelte. Durch die Beeinflussung, wo und wann Biber Ökosysteme entwickeln, verändern Wölfe alle ökologischen Prozesse (z. B. Wasserspeicherung, Nährstoffkreislauf und Waldnachfolge), die aufgrund von durch Biber verursachten Aufstauungen auftreten. Unsere Studie zeigt, wie Raubtiere eine übergroße Wirkung auf Ökosysteme haben, wenn sie Ökosystemingenieure töten.